A Level Psychology Essay Example

A Level Psychology Essay Example A Level Psychology Essay A Level Psychology Essay One reason that studying memory and organisation may be interesting is because the area was neglected, up until the 1990s, when psychologists became interested in how an enormously important but complex facility operates in people after being stimulated by the attempts to provide information about computer systems and how information is organised.( R.Gross, Hodder and Sloughton) One theory in relation to memory suggests that organisation may occur at two separate stages of memory. Meyer said to remember is to have organised and suggested that organisation either occurs at storage or at retrieval. Meyer suggested that at storage organisation serves to reduce the amount of material to be remembered and does this by grouping it hierarchically or by chunking it (putting it into chunks to remember).At retrieval he argued that organised items have greater uniqueness and therefore more retrieval routes assocciated with them.This suggests that organisation aids memory either by reducing the amount of information or by providing items with more reason to be remembered.( Broadbent, D.E., Cooper, P.J. Broadbent) A key study into hierarchy and memory was conducted by Collins and Quillian 1969 which proposed the hierarchical network model. This model was concerned with how words are organised in relation to their semantic meanings.Semantic memory was portrayed as a network of words which are connected to other when there is a semantic similarity. The meaning of a word is said to be given by pointers which basically point from the word out to the meaning. For example, Collins and Quillian suggested that pointers could indicate properties. For example a canary would have pointers to can sing. Other pointers may point to categories that a certain word belongs to. So a canary would have pointers to bird (on a lower level) and to animal (on a higher level). The model said that if a person was given the sentence A canary can sing and was asked to decide whether it is true or not they would only need to find the word canary and retrieve properties stored with that word. To test this model Collins and Quillian did an experiment where subjects were presented with sentences and were told to judge whether true or false by pressing the correct button as quick as possible.The length of reaction time indicated the difficulty.They found that the time taken to decide that a statement was true or not increased as the number of levels the subject had to go through to verify it increased. Therefore it implies that semantic meaning is stored in a hierarchy to aid memory in terms of its organisation.(R.Gross, Hodder and Sloughton) In 1953 Bousfield conducted a study where he asked subjects to learn 60 words that derived from 4 categories (animals, names, professions and vegetables), which the participants were not aware of. The categories had 15 examples which were all mixed up so did not appear to already be in a category. Bousfield found that when participants free recalled they tended to naturally cluster similar items, for example, if someone recalled potato it was likely that other vegetables followed. This concludes that although participants had not been told of the categories, they recalled in clusters and so therefore suggested that they tried to organise the data themselves and so proves in order to remember better the participants organised the data.(R.Gross, Hodder and Sloughton)  Bower,(1969) investigated the effects of hierarchy in recall memory, and compared  the results of these with those using word lists in a random order.The hierarchy provided a context for the words to be remembered by and recall was found to be up to three times better when word lists were organised . The study used an independent groups design, with two groups of participants: a control group and an experimental group . The independent variable was a list of 112words: The control group was given an unstructured, randomised list, while the experimental group was given the same words organised into a hierarchicy. The recall performance (DV) was measured using this scale (correctly recalled word = 1, incorrect or no-recalled word = 0). Bower found that the unorganised list gave a recall rate of 18% and particpants who used the organised list had a recall rate of 65%. Suggesting that organisation does aid memory recall.(Bower, G.H., Clark, M.C., Lesgold, A.M. Winzenz, D)  Aim: the aim of this replication of Bowers (1969) study is to test his findings (65% recall rate when given an organised list and 18% with and unorganised list) which will be conducted as a small scale version of the original experiment. The experiment will be considered small scale as the number of words will be reduced to 40 compared to Bowers 112. The number of participants will only be around 30 in this replication. The reason that a small scale experiment is to be done is because it is an opportunity sample and is estimated that only around 30 students will be available within a class. The experiment aims to test the experiment using different words, countries, which are categorised into continents further catagorised into eastern and western parts of the world whereas Bower used minerals, a harder topic. Directional Hypothesis: The directional hypothesis which was chosen was that partcipants will remember a greater number of words if they are presented in an organised way rather than if they are presented in a random list (an organised list will be made up of a heirarchy of words into sub categories and a random list will consist of all the words mixed up in list format) . The lists will be divided into 4 categories: Asia, Europe, South America and Africa. There will be 10 words in each category and will be randomly mixed up by picking them out of a hat.  The null hypothesis is whether the list is organised or not will not affect the number of words that the participant remembers and any difference is due to chance.  The chosen hypothesis is one tailed and is used because Bowers findings concluded it to be true as there was a 65% recall rate for organised lists in comparison to just 18% recall rate for an unorganised list..

Strong Acid Definition and Examples

Strong Acid Definition and Examples A strong acid is an acid that is completely dissociated or ionized in an aqueous solution. It is a chemical species with a high capacity to lose a proton, H. In water, a strong acid loses one proton, which is captured by water to form the hydronium ion: HA(aq) H2O → H3O(aq) A−(aq) Diprotic and polyprotic acids may lose more than one proton, but the strong acid pKa value and reaction only refers to the loss of the first proton. Strong acids have a small logarithmic constant (pKa) and a large acid dissociation constant (Ka). Most strong acids are corrosive, but some of the superacids are not corrosive. In contrast, some of the weak acids (e.g., hydrofluoric acid) may be highly corrosive. Note: As acid concentration increases, the ability to dissociate diminishes. Under normal conditions in water, strong acids dissociate completely, but extremely concentrated solutions do not. Examples of Strong Acids While there are many weak acids, there are few strong acids. The common strong acids include: HCl (hydrochloric acid)H2SO4 (sulfuric acid)HNO3 (nitric acid)HBr (hydrobromic acid)HClO4 (perchloric acid)HI (hydroiodic acid)p-toluenesulfonic acid (an organic soluble strong acid)methanesulfonic acid (a liquid organic strong acid) The following acids dissociate almost completely in water, so they are often considered to be strong acids, although they are not more acidic than the hydronium ion, H3O. HNO3Â  (nitric acid)HClO3Â  (chloric acid) Some chemists consider the hydronium ion, bromic acid, periodic acid, perbromic acid, and periodic acid to be strong acids. If the ability to donate protons is used as the primary criterion for acid strength, then the strong acids (from strongest to weakest) would be: H[SbF6]Â  (fluoroantimonic acid)FSO3HSbF5Â  (magic acid)H(CHB11Cl11)Â  (carborane superacid)FSO3HÂ  (fluorosulfuric acid)CF3SO3HÂ  (triflic acid) These are the superacids, which are defined as acids that are more acidic than 100% sulfuric acid. The superacids permanently protonate water. Factors That Determine Acid Strength You may be wondering why the strong acids dissociate so well, or why certain weak acids do not completely ionize. A few factors come into play: atomic radius - As the atomic radius increases, so does acidity. For example, HI is a stronger acid than HCl (iodine is a larger atom than chlorine).electronegativity - The more electronegative a conjugate base in the same period of the periodic table is (A-), the more acidic it is.electrical charge - The more positive the charge on an atom, the higher its acidity. In other words, its easier to take a proton from a neutral species than from one with a negative charge.equilibrium - When an acid dissociates, equilibrium is reached with its conjugate base. In the case of strong acids, the equilibrium strongly favors the product or is to the right of a chemical equation. The conjugate base of a strong acid is much weaker than water as a base.solvent - In most applications, strong acids are discussed in relation to water as a solvent. However, acidity and basicity have meaning in nonaqueous solvent. For example, in liquid ammonia, acetic acid ionizes completely and may be considered a str ong acid, even though it is a weak acid in water.

Official Development Assistance and Poverty Reduction Essay

Official Development Assistance and Poverty Reduction - Essay Example The Reality of Aid Report (2010:9) though note that the manner in which these agreements are implemented is too technical to actually transform the manner in which aid is governed to actually make it more effective and relevant to the poor for whom it is aimed. It shows that the agreements have not changed the reality of aid relationships since what is actually practised are technical aspects related to aid management rather than a focus on development policy making. The report concludes that even though reforms in aid effectiveness have delivered some benefits, they have not made considerable difference in how aid is viewed or to the extent to which it empowers or improves the lives of those who need it most (pp.25). From ODA’s definition, its key objective is to promote â€Å"economic development and welfare of developing countries† (OECD, 2008:1). Such development such developing healthcare facilities, educational facilities or even infrastructural development is oft en aimed at reducing poverty levels experienced by these countries as it increases the capacity of the countries to earn a decent living and to live in healthy states. In essence therefore one may relate poverty reduction as the key objective of ODA. So if ODA is not able to effectively meet its objectives as noted by the rise in poverty over a twenty year period as shown, then should aid be counted as official development assistance even if it does not reduce poverty levels? This paper argues that nothing should be counted as official development Assistance until it has been proven to reduce poverty. Official Development Assistance (ODA) ODA is defined as aid flows from donor countries of the OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC) list to countries eligible for such aid found on the DAC... From this essay it is clear that from ODA’s definition, its key objective is to promote â€Å"economic development and welfare of developing countries†. Such development such developing healthcare facilities, educational facilities or even infrastructural development is often aimed at reducing poverty levels experienced by these countries as it increases the capacity of the countries to earn a decent living and to live in healthy states. In essence therefore one may relate poverty reduction as the key objective of ODA. So if ODA is not able to effectively meet its objectives as noted by the rise in poverty over a twenty year period as shown, then should aid be counted as official development assistance even if it does not reduce poverty levels? This paper argues that nothing should be counted as official development Assistance until it has been proven to reduce poverty.This discussion highlights that  ODA is defined as aid flows from donor countries of the OECD Develo pment Assistance Committee (DAC) list to countries eligible for such aid found on the DAC list, these aid must first and fore most be given by official agencies or countries to the other countries or official institutions within the country where each aid is given with the core purpose of promotion welfare and development in the developing countries.  The area of focus of the definition in this paper is on the main objective of ODA whose purpose is to increase development and reduce poverty levels.

Reagan Revolution Through President Obama Essay

Reagan Revolution Through President Obama - Essay Example (Council of economic advisors, 2010, p.50) Even before he took office a change could be seen in the perspective of the whites regarding African-Americans. Research has shown that 22 percent of Americans view Obama as an exemplary figure when they think of African-Americans. If Obama administration continues to be successful then he can activate positive feelings in majority of people regarding the blacks (The Obama effect†¦., 2009). Overturning the Reagan Revolution Barack Obama in his inaugural speech pronounced that he would use old and traditional values to effect progressive changes. His approach towards politics would carry a sense of mature collective responsibility instead of the juvenile approach of individualism. He would uphold the democratic role of the US government and would continue to maintain the leadership position of the country in the global front. Obama has defended the traditional values like â€Å"honesty and hard work, courage and fair play, tolerance and curiosity, loyalty and patriotism†. With this he has broken the established values of Reagan era. Obama has emphasized on the effectiveness of the government over its size thus overturning the Reagan revolution (Dionne, 2009). Impact With advocating the values â€Å"tolerance and curiosity† Obama has actually supported the concept of innovations by those who are determined to take risks. Obama as president believes in stressing on the security of the nation as he thinks that â€Å"power alone cannot protect†. He stressed on regulations on the market to keep it under control. His aim is to promote equality as according to him â€Å"the nation cannot prosper when it favours only the prosperous†. (Dionne, 2009) Impact of 1980s AIDS epidemic American life is largely a manifestation of religious... This report approves that the US war against Afghanistan was essentially illegal because it did not abide by the international law on war. According to the law when one nation makes armed attack on another nation, only then the attacked nation can use military aggression for defense. In this case Afghanistan did not attack since the 19 convicted men were not Afghans. Also permission from UN Security Council is needed to start a war and in this case the council did not permit the war. However there were some moral rationales behind the war. An international poll revealed that many people from all over the world took an unfavorable view on America especially on Bush. When people were asked who they think is a threat to world peace United States got more votes than al-Qaeda terrorist group. More people felt that America is more dangerous than countries like Iran and Syria. The poll also revealed negative views of people on America’s war on terrorism in the Middle East. This paper makes a conclusion that the continuous economic depression has created disparities within the American society thus threatening its position as superpower in the global arena. Although it has always been a land of unlimited opportunities but the success has become fragile. If there is no fast solution for overcoming the economic downfall, then the global economy is at stake. The growing disparity between the rich and the poor violates the core image of the United States.

Racial issues in Cleveland, Ohio Personal Statement

Racial issues in Cleveland, Ohio - Personal Statement Example The board worked with labor unions, civil rights groups, as well as industries with the sole aim of improving the conditions of black employees. Federal and state officials first opposed this idea as they deemed that it would lead to chaos. They believed that the formation of this board would herald tensions in most parts of the United States (Miller & Anthony 20-190). Accomodationism refers to having a belief that dwells on having a common ground in people who have a similar belief in supernatural beings. The black leaders who supported the actions undertaken by opposing groups had a phenomenal impact on the fight against racial profiling. These leaders led groups of blacks in addressing the issues faced by the African Americans. In Cleveland, accommodationism ensured that African Americans presented their grievances to the relevant authorities. This strategy succeeded as religious leaders used the church to address the problems faced by the blacks. Under the umbrella of religion, black leaders were able to address the concerns of African Americans (Miller & Anthony

Human Motivation Essay Example for Free

Human Motivation Essay A drug users are those individuals who have tried or continue to use alcohol or other drugs but who are not dependent or addicted. They also fall into different subgroups: a) those who have tried a substance but have discontinued use; b) those who use infrequently and primarily in response to social circumstances; and, c) those who use periodically but infrequently enough to avoid dependence or addictions (Lorion, Bussell Goldberg, 1991). This all started during the adolescent stage around 12-13 years old. First they used by smoking then use of alcohol then progress to something more like using of illicit drugs Initially, drug use is limited to weekends. Later, however, use may begin to take place during the week, but only in the evenings. Adolescents learn that the drug will provide the feeling they desire and that it will provide it every time. They learn to control the degree of this feeling by regulating the amount of drug they use. At this point they can either take the drug or leave it. Since drug use usually takes place with friends, this stage is sometimes referred to as social use (Milhorn, 1994) Drug abuse is using drugs because of its psychoactive effects without any supervision of a doctor or other medical professionals. There is an increase in frequency of drug use. They maintain their own supplies and may begin to use drugs when alone than with friends. Drug addiction is perhaps the worst of all because a drug addicts’ life is mainly focused on using and possessing drugs. They use drugs every day, more often is much better and there is an increase of dosage of drug intake to satisfy themselves and reach their â€Å"high level†. Users prefer to use drugs alone than with friends or company. Addiction is powerful motivation for some people. The craving for certain drugs can become overwhelming. Addicts may crave their drugs strongly that they are willing to give up everything including their families, jobs and relationship because these drugs that they take gives them incomparable pleasure. These drugs work on the drug addicts’ brain neurons and give intense pleasure. If an addict stop using them it will be very difficult because their brains were used to this drugs and the pleasure it brought to the users’ body thus motive to resume on using drugs again become strong and intense. Addictive drugs produces permanent changes in the brain reward system that causes craving even after withdrawal are over. Repeated use of drugs can cause neural sensitization, this last much longer than withdrawal. This may be one of the reason why recovered addicts are in danger of relapse into drug use even after they completed their rehabilitation and detoxification. The combination of these factors sheds light on why psychoactive drugs, more than many other incentives, are able to produce addictions. These drugs directly activate brain pleasure mechanism to unmatched levels, produced withdrawal syndromes that drive a recovering addict back to the drugs and perhaps permanently hyperactive the brain system that causes drug rewards to be desired. This combination is hard to resist. References Lorion R. , Bussell D. , and Goldberg R. ( 1991). Identification of youth at high risk for alcohol or other drug problems. National Commission on Marijuana and Drug Abuse. In E. Goplerud (ed. ), Preventing Adolescent Drug Use: From Theory to Practice. OSAP, DHHS Pub. No. (ADM) 91-1725. Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office. Milhorn, Thomas (1994) Drug and Alcohol Abuse. MA: Perseus Publishing.

Yahoo :: Free Essay Writer

Yahoo The Yahoo stock has taken a huge drop and has taken the rest of the stock market with it. The first quarter sales are set to be 40% off last year’s estimates. The stock is down 92 % from its peak, which was set on Dec 30, 1999. The Yahoo stock has been in a steady downfall since its peak. There were also other drops in technology stocks. Cisco and Intel predicted big revenue drops and job cuts. This set gave the NASDAQ a 5.3% fall. The index is off 59% from its peak, which was reached last year. Since Yahoo’s birth in 1995, the company has not had to deal with anything close to the dilemma it is facing now. They know have to deal with problem without their CEO Tim Koogle, who recently stepped aside. It was not too long ago that there were rumors of â€Å"Yahoo buying Disney†. â€Å"Now Yahoo would be lucky if Disney buys them.† Yahoo was once worth $134 billion, is now valued at less than $10 billion. Yahoo gets almost all of its cash from online advertising. This has proven to be a good way to get cash in the past five years. At first all of Yahoo’s 160 million visitors were interested in these advertisements. But these advertisements seem to have lost their luster.â€Å" Few people are clicking on those flashy top-of-the page banners.† It seems that only .01% of visitors click on the advertisements now, compared to .06% of visitors a couple of years ago. This is interesting statistic compared to the fact that even junk mail gets a 1%-to-2% response rate. The Yahoo Company is almost completely dependent on the ads. Unlike AOL, who are a service provider as well as a content provider. AOL collects $21.95 per person a month, whereas people using Yahoo get their Internet access elsewhere and are used to paying nothing for content. When the CEO of Yahoo tried to extract even a small fee from users of Yahoo’s auction service, 90% of the users stopped using the service. Yahoo will now need to find a new CEO, will Yahoo currently fending off potential takeovers with a two-year $500 million stock buyback plan. This leave’s the company with $ 1.5 billion in the bank, giving it time to figure out how to make more money on its own. Although it might hard for Yahoo to stay strong when AOL and Microsoft are becoming so dominant.